ClinEdR involves a lot of jargon that can be confusing to the novice. As a multidisciplinary field, it draws on education, psychology, sociology and other academic traditions, meaning even experienced researchers can come across new terminology. This glossary provides an introduction to some of these terms, with links to key texts. If there are any terms you think we can add, please get in touch.
OUR GLOSSARY
Glossary
OUR GLOSSARY
An publication of this is available here: https://asmepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tct.13605
Abductive
Definition
Abduction is an inferential process that aims to produce new hypotheses and theories based on surprising results or findings
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Timmermans S, Tavory I. Theory construction in qualitative research: From grounded theory to abductive analysis. Sociological theory. 2012 Sep;30(3):167-86.
Action research
Definition
Approach to research used for exploration, intervention, evaluation and change – action is seen as central to bringing about change in an organisation or programme. Most often qualitative methods are used, but not exclusively. Involves collaboration between practitioners and researchers. Cyclical nature to the research process to implement and evaluate changes, making further changes if necessary.
Summary (bullet points)
- Focus of action research is change
- Involves both researchers and practitioners and occurs in cycles to implement and evaluate change
- Qualitative methods most often used
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Eizenberg N. Action research in medical education: Improving teaching via investigating learning. InAction research for change and development 2021 Dec 24 (pp. 179-206). Routledge.
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Definition
A branch of computer science concerned with automating tasks and decisions normally taken by humans.
Summary (bullet points)
AI is concerned with the automation of decision making and pattern recognition
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
(“When I say …AI” paper- currently under review with Med Ed)
Audio diary
Definition
Audio diaries involve the audio recording of participants’ ideas, responses and reflections. They are typically collected over a period of time.
Summary (bullet points)
- method of collecting in the moment or reflective qualitative data
- typically a longitudinal approach
- ease of completion results in low attrition rates
- can be recorded on mobile phones for easy accessibility
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joop.12132
Autoethnography
Definition
An ethnographic approach to research where an author focuses on their own thoughts, feelings and experiences in regard to a particular phenomenon or topic of interest.
Summary (bullet points)
- Involves reflection on, and analysis, of personal experiences and thoughts as a type of research
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Farrell L, Bourgeois‐Law G, Regehr G, Ajjawi R. Autoethnography: introducing ‘I’into medical education research. Medical Education. 2015 Oct;49(10):974-82.
Axiology
Definition
Axiology is an important consideration in selecting a research paradigm. Axiological considerations help you decide what is valuable and ethical to research. It involves reflecting on your own values, the needs of the field, and ethical processes of your research.
Summary (bullet points)
- Part of considerations when selecting a research paradigm
- Involves reflecting on value and ethics
- Should be done before any research commences
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Killam L. Research terminology simplified: Paradigms, axiology, ontology, epistemology and methodology. Laura Killam; 2013 Nov 10.
Bivariate Analysis
Definition
Describes the relationships between two variables
BMAT
Definition
BioMedical Admissions Test. Used to select candidates for universities across the UK, Australia and New Zealand for entrance to a range of university programmes including medicine, dentistry and biomedical sciences.
Case study
Definition
In research, a case study is an entity that is studied as a single unit, and has clear boundaries in both time and space (location). Case study research might focus on a particular event, specific programme, or organisation. Data sources are usually qualitative in nature, and multiple data sources are used to explore each individual case.
Summary (bullet points)
- Case studies are single, well-defined entities that become the focus of analysis in a qualitative research project
- May be events, programmes, organisations, etc.
- Multiple data sources most usual in a case study analysis”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Ng SL, Baker L, Cristancho S, Kennedy TJ, Lingard L. Qualitative research in medical education: methodologies and methods. Understanding medical education: evidence, theory, and practice. 2018 Dec 3:427-41.
Causal modelling/inference
Definition
A set of statistical techniques aimed at achieving causal inference from (mainly) observational data. It rests on relatively strong assumptions.
Summary (bullet points)
Given appropriate data, it is sometimes possible to derive causal inferences from observational (non-experimental) data
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Spirtes, P. Introduction to causal inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research 11 (2010) 1643-1662
Chi-square test
Definition
A statistical test used to compare observed results with expected results. This will determine whether the is due to chance, or if it is due to a relationship between the variables you are studying.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
methodology
Foundational paper (s)
https://www.southampton.ac.uk/passs/full_time_education/bivariate_analysis/chi_square.page
Classical Test Theory (CTT)
Definition
An alternative framework to understand psychological testing to IRT. This conceptualises test scores as being made up of a ‘true’ score and error.
Summary (bullet points)
Classical test theory is the most commonly used approach to psychometrics and considers test scores the result of a true score combined with measurement error.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Cappelleri, Joseph C., J. Jason Lundy, and Ron D. Hays. “Overview of classical test theory and item response theory for the quantitative assessment of items in developing patient-reported outcomes measures.” Clinical therapeutics 36.5 (2014): 648-662.
Code
Definition
An element of qualitative analysis which represents a low-level label describing what a participant has said. Codes are combined and synthesised to develop themes.
Summary (bullet points)
- Descriptive labels assigned to raw data to help make sense of what is being said throughout a transcript
- Codes may contribute to the development of a coding framework, which summarise and describe the codes to be applied to an entire dataset, and can be developed inductively or deductively
- Can be semantic or latent, as with themes
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Analysis
Foundational paper (s)
Kiger ME, Varpio L. Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131. Medical teacher. 2020 Aug 2;42(8):846-54.
Conceptual framework
Definition
Conceptual frameworks provide the justification for why a study is necessary- they describe what is known about a topic, identify gaps in knowledge, and outline the study’s methodological foundations.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Paradis E, Uijtdehaage S, Young M. The distinctions between theory, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;95(7):989-94.
Confounding Variable
Definition
A variable that affects both the dependent variable and the independent variable together, which can lead to the rise of associations that are not true. Confounding variables are minimised in research studies using controls.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Pearl, J. (2009). Causality. Cambridge University Press.
Consensus methods
Definition
Construct validity
Definition
Construct validity is the gathering of evidence to support the interpretation of what a specific measure reflects. Construct validity is concerned with the appropriateness of inferences made on the observations or measurements (typically test scores). and whether a test can be considered to reflect the intended construct.
Classification (s)
Research term
Constructionism
Definition
Constructivism and constructionism are often used synonymously, yet the paradigms differ. While both theories highlight the subjectivity of reality and knowledge, constructionism maintains knowledge and reality, are influenced by, and exist only within social interactions – in other words, there is nothing outside the speech of an encounter, and you cannot speculate or infer conclusions beyond this. Constructionist research emphasises interaction, more frequently adopting observational methods of data collection and employing methods of analysis that focus on language.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm with a subjectivist ontology and epistemology
- Nothing exists outside of social interactions, focus is on social groups and interactions themselves
- Analysis focused on observational methods and exploration of language
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Rees CE, Crampton PE, Monrouxe LV. Re-visioning academic medicine through a constructionist lens. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jun 1;95(6):846-50.
Constructivism
Definition
A paradigm which highlights the subjectivity of reality and knowledge. Within this subjective reality, where knowledge is socially constructed, constructivism highlights the role of the individual in making sense of their experiences, and in knowledge formation. Constructivist research often makes claims as to what people may be thinking or feeling based on their speech. This type of research gives primacy to the perspectives of individuals.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm with a subjectivist ontology and epistemology
- Focuses on how individuals make sense of their experiences
- Infers individuals’ cognitive schemas and processes from collected data
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Bhaskar, R. (1975). A realist theory of science. York: Books.
Contamination
Definition
When any of the interventions or treatments that were intended for one group of participants in a research study is also delivered to members of the control group as well, who were not supposed to receive any intervention.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Rhoads, C. H. (2011). The Implications of “Contamination” for Experimental Design in Education. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 36(1), 76–104. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998610379133
Continuous variable
Definition
Data which can be measured and can take on any value within a scale, such as temperature and there is no minimum separation between values.
Classification (s)
Statistics
Control Group
Definition
A group of study participants who receive no additional intervention or treatment and serve as the baseline for comparison.
Summary (bullet points)
A control group might receive:
- A placebo
- A standard treatment
- No treatment at all
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Bailey, R. (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge University Press.
Convenience Sampling
Definition
Sampling from a group of people or data subjects that is easy or convenient to sample from. An example might be standing on a high street and asking passers by to participate.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. Research methods for business students.
Conversation analysis
Definition
Method for analysing communication using recordings of conversations.
Summary (bullet points)
Its theoretical focus is on identifying and characterising the ‘machinery’ underlying talk and social relations.
Detailed transcriptions of recorded conversations that document both what was said and how it was said are produced and analysed looking for recurrent patterns within and across the data.
Foundational paper (s)
Leydon GM, Barnes RK. Conversation analysis. Qualitative research in health care. 2020 Jan 15:135-50.
Correlation
Definition
Measure of dependence
Covariance
Definition
Reflects the scale variables are measured on
Credibility
Definition
Credibility is analogous to internal validity in quantitative research, and refers to confidence in the quality and truth-value of the data.
Summary (bullet points)
Can be improved through strategies such as triangulation, continuous observation of subjects for adequate periods of time and extended participation to build trust with participants.
Foundational paper (s)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375092
Critical realism
Definition
Critical Realism (CR) differentiates between the ‘real’ world and the ‘observable’ world. The ‘real’ can not be observed and exists independent from human perceptions, theories, and constructions. The world as we know and understand it is formed through what is ‘observable’ from our own perspectives and experiences.
Summary (bullet points)
- “Real’ world vs ‘observable’ world
- Unobservable structures cause observable events
- The social world can only be understood if the structures that generate events are understood.”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
“Archer, M. S. (1998). Critical realism : Essential readings. London ; New York: Routledge.
Bhaskar, R. (1975). A realist theory of science. York: Books.”
Critical review
Definition
A writing task that expects you to identify, summarise and evaluate the views an author has presented i.e. examining another person’s thoughts on a topic from your point of view.
Classification (s)
Method
Data
Definition
Individual facts, values or pieces of information. Data are what a study aims to collect, and it can take many forms. It might be values such as temperature or pain scores, diary entries or recorded quotes.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Publishing, O., & Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2008). OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Debriefing
Definition
Debriefing is a directed, intentional conversation that can be used for knowledge or skill attainment, or to answer questions about threats to patient safety and patient care based on a recent event or a hypothetical situation
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
https://psnet.ahrq.gov/primer/debriefing-clinical-learning#:~:text=Debriefing%20is%20a%20directed%2C%20intentional,event%20or%20a%20hypothetical%20situation.
Deductive (research or coding)
Definition
Abduction is an inferential process that aims to produce new hypotheses and theories based on surprising results or findings
Summary (bullet points)
Deductive research tests exisitng theories. In qualitative research, deductive coding means begins with predefined set of codes that are applied to the data.
Classification (s)
Research term
Delphi method
Definition
Delphi may be characterized as a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem.
Summary (bullet points)
- Also known as Estimate-Talk-Estimate or ETE) is a structured communication technique or method
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
The Delphi Method Techniques and Applications. Book by Harold Linstone & Murray Turoff 2002
Demand Characteristics
Definition
A characteristic of an experiment or research study that might indicate to a participant what the aims of the study are, or what the researcher is trying to measure.
Summary (bullet points)
If a participant realises the aim of the study, this can cause them to change their behaviour in turn and introduce bias.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Allen, M. (2017). The sage encyclopedia of communication research methods (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc doi: 10.4135/9781483381411
Dependibility
Definition
Stability of data over time and in varying conditions. Analogous to reliability in quantiative data – if data is stable, it would likely appear similar if the interviews or focus groups were repeated.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Foundational paper (s)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375092
Descriptive statistics
Definition
Provides basic summaries about the sample and the observations made
Diary research
Definition
A longitudinal research method in which participants collect information by recording a personal diary about the subject of interest. Can be used to collect answers in response to questions about a phenomenon or event, or capture data as events take place.
Summary (bullet points)
Feedback studies ask participants to answer questions about the subject of interest at assigned times or intervals, while Elicitation studies are more contemporaneous and capture data as events unfold.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Sullivan, Brian K. (August 9, 2012). “5 methods to collect data with diary studies”. Big Design. Retrieved September 24, 2016
Discourse analysis
Definition
Analysis of both written and spoken language in relation to social context
Discrete variable
Definition
Data which can be measured and can take on any value within a scale, and there is a minimum positive difference between values.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Documentary research
Definition
Double Blind Study
Definition
A research study in which neither the researchers or the participants know to which interventional groups the participants have been assigned.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Padhi A., Fineberg N. (2010) Double-Blinded Study. In: Stolerman I.P. (eds) Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68706-1_1425
Educational concept
Definition
Concepts are general ideas regarding how the world and empirical observations relate – they are the definitional terms (e.g. of coaching) that are the basis for theory-building.
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Paradis E, Uijtdehaage S, Young M. The distinctions between theory, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;95(7):989-94.
Educational framework
Definition
Educational frameworks encompass educational goals against which trainee competence or progress is evaluated. Frameworks can be analytic, synthetic, or developmental. Analytic frameworks conduct evaluation of trainee competence through examining competence in individual domains. Synthetic frameworks view competence more holistically and undertake evaluation of real-world activities. Developmental frameworks conceptualize learning as a trajectory and focus on milestones in the progression towards competence.
Foundational paper (s)
Pangaro L, Ten Cate O. Frameworks for learner assessment in medicine: AMEE Guide No. 78. Medical Teacher. 2013 Jun 1;35(6):e1197-210.
Epistemology
Definition
The nature of knowledge – how knowledge about an entity is formed and represented. Epistemology largely defines methodology.
Summary (bullet points)
- Asks philosophical questions about the nature of knowledge
- Part of selecting an appropriate paradigm for your research that will guide methodological and methods selection
- Important to reflect on your position prior to beginning research
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Ajjawi R, Monrouxe LV, O’Brien BC, Rees CE. Shedding the cobra effect: problematising thematic emergence, triangulation, saturation and member checking. Medical education. 2017 Jan;51(1):40-50.
Ethical approval
Definition
A process by which research is approved as ethical by an institutional ethics board or committee. Required for most medical education research that involves human subjects as participants. Usually involves a formal application and often a research proposal and supplying relevant study materials for review by the board.
Summary (bullet points)
- Process by which research is deemed ethical by an approved committee of experts
- Necessary for research involving human participants
- Usually involves a formal application, research should not start until approval is gained
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Goodson L, Vassar M. An overview of ethnography in healthcare and medical education research. Journal of educational evaluation for health professions. 2011;8.
Ethnography
Definition
A research approach used in anthropology and the social sciences to describe and explore a culture, subculture, or social group in its natural setting. Can use quantitative and qualitative approaches. Qualitative ethnography relies on fieldwork, where a researcher will spend a prolonged period immersed in a culture, interacting with its various stakeholders, in order to adequately describe that culture.
Summary (bullet points)
- An approach to explore and describe a culture, subculture or social group
- Researchers become a part of the culture or group they are investigating
- Methods can be quantitative or qualitative
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Goodson L, Vassar M. An overview of ethnography in healthcare and medical education research. Journal of educational evaluation for health professions. 2011;8.
Evidence synthesis
Definition
Evidence synthesis (also sometimes called “systematic review”) is a technique of combining information from different studies that have investigated the same topic to come to an overall understanding of what the different studies found.
Critical theory is a school of thought that emphasises the examination and critique of society and culture, using knowledge from across the social sciences and philosophy.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Boland, Angela, Gemma Cherry, and Rumona Dickson, eds. “”Doing a systematic review: A student’s guide.”” (2017).
Factor Analysis
Definition
A statistical method for investigating relationships between variables that are not easily measured directly. Most commonly works by assigning similar variables into groups called dimensions. Factor analysis is a ‘dimensionality reduction’ technique. That is, it seeks to explain patterns in a large number of variables by identifying a smaller number of underlying latent variables (‘factors’).
Summary (bullet points)
Can be explanatory or confirmatory
- Explanatory factor analysis aims to find hidden relationships between variables when you have no idea what they might be
- Confirmatory factor analysis relies on the researcher having an idea about how the relationships might be structured and seeks to confirm these ideas
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Watkins, M. W. (2018). Exploratory Factor Analysis: A Guide to Best Practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771807
Fieldnotes
Definition
Records which refer to qualitative notes taken by researchers during or after a period of observation of the subject being studied.
Classification (s)
Research term
Focus group
Definition
A method of qualitative data collection that involves a researcher interacting with a group of participants. Research focused on interaction between participants, or reaching consensus on a topic might use focus groups. Questions are asked in a group setting, and participants discuss their views on these, whilst a researcher facilitates the discussion.
Summary (bullet points)
- A type of group interview
- Most appropriate for research wishing to analyse the interaction between participants, or consensus generation on a particular topic
- Facilitator or facilitators necessary to oversee discussion
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Foundational paper (s)
Gill P, Stewart K, Treasure E, Chadwick B. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British dental journal. 2008 Mar;204(6):291-5.
GAMSAT
Definition
Graduate Medical School Admissions Test. Used exclusively for selection to graduate-entry medical programmes across the UK and Australia.
Summary (bullet points)
Admissions test for graduate-entry medical school programmes.
- Takers must have at least a Bachelor’s degree
- Covers the A level science curriculum
Generalisability
Definition
This means that the findings of a piece of research are applicable to a whole population. A term most often used in quantitative research. Can be attended to through considering whether a study’s participants are representative of the population from which they are drawn.
Summary (bullet points)
- A quantitative marker of quality
- Concerns how easily findings can be extrapolated to an entire population
- Representative sample key
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Quality criterion
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, O’Brien B, Rees CE, Monrouxe L, Ajjawi R, Paradis E. The applicability of generalisability and bias to health professions education’s research. Medical education. 2021 Feb;55(2):167-73.
Grounded theory
Definition
A systematic approach to qualitative analysis that involves the development of theory in underresearched areas. Core features of the approach include theoretical sampling, constant comparison, theoretical sufficiency, and iterative data collection and analysis.
Summary (bullet points)
- Qualitative methodology focused on theory creation
- Umbrella term which includes Glasserian approaches, Strausserian approaches, and constructivist approaches
- Approaches share several common features including theoretical sampling, constant comparison, theoretical sufficiency, and an iterative approach”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Kennedy TJ, Lingard LA. Making sense of grounded theory in medical education. Medical education. 2006 Feb;40(2):101-8.
Group interview
Definition
A method of qualitative data collection. Focus groups are a type of group interview, but others also exist. Group interviews may not focus on interactions of participants, instead a researcher using group interviews might be more interested in collecting individual responses from a large group of people in a group setting for convenience.
Summary (bullet points)
- Includes focus group interviews, but not exclusively focus groups
- Some group interviews focus less on interaction, but are used by researchers to interview many participants concurrently
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Foundational paper (s)
Frey JH, Fontana A. The group interview in social research. The Social Science Journal. 1991 Jan 1;28(2):175-87.
Guided walks
Definition
Audio diaries involve the audio recording of participants’ ideas, responses and reflections. They are typically collected over a period of time.
Summary (bullet points)
- method of collecting in the moment or reflective qualitative data
- typically a longitudinal approach
- ease of completion results in low attrition rates
- can be recorded on mobile phones for easy accessibility
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joop.12132
Hawthorne Effect
Definition
A phenomenon in which a participant will change their behaviour upon learning that they are being observed
Summary (bullet points)
This has an effect on whether or not the results of experiments or studies are generalisable to the population.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
McCarney, R., Warner, J., Iliffe, S., van Haselen, R., Griffin, M., & Fisher, P. (2007). The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial. BMC medical research methodology, 7, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-7-30
Heterogeneity
Definition
Differences in the effect sizes or findings of similar studies
Summary (bullet points)
Differences can arise due to:
- Differences in the population, intervention, comparison, and outcome
- Study design and methodology
Important when performing meta-analysis
- High heterogeneity suggests there are differences between the included studies
- Limits generalisability”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses
Hypothesis
Definition
A statement of an argument to be tested by a researcher.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Illuminative evaluation
Definition
Seeks to illuminate the conditions of an education programme using a qualitative approach. Illuminative evaluation focuses on the wider context in which educational programs function. It is primarily concerned with description and interpretation rather than with measurement and prediction.
Foundational paper (s)
Stufflebeam, Daniel L., and Anthony J. Shinkfield. “Illuminative Evaluation: The Holistic Approach.” Systematic Evaluation. Springer, Dordrecht, 1985. 285-310.
Individual interviews
Definition
A method of qualitative data collection that involves interacting with individuals to consider a topic of interest. May be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured. Can be conducted face-to-face, or virtually.
Summary (bullet points)
- One-to-one conversations with the purpose of collecting data on a particular topic or experience
- May be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured
- Face-to-face or virtual
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Foundational paper (s)
Ryan F, Coughlan M, Cronin P. Interviewing in qualitative research: The one-to-one interview. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation. 2009 Jun;16(6):309-14.
Inductive
Definition
An inductive approach is about generating or building new theories through observation of the data
Summary (bullet points)
- “One of two broad methods of reasoning which is generally associated with qualitative research
- Deductive approaches are aimed at testing theory”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Soiferman LK. Compare and Contrast Inductive and Deductive Research Approaches. Online Submission. 2010 Apr. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542066.pdf
Inferential statistics
Definition
Using your data and resulting statistical analyses to make predictions about a given scenario. This might be to test your research hypothesis, or to make other predictions.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Institutional ethnography
Definition
Short definition
Aims to map the relationships between different people to explore how activity is mediated in real life
Summary (bullet points)
identified as a novel methodology through which to generate and analyse data about ‘real life’ in health professionals education. This methodology aims to map the relationships between different people to explore how activity is mediated.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Integrative review
Definition
The integrative review is a literature review that includes both empirical and theoretical publications. It also allows for the synthesis of papers with diverse methodologies.
Foundational paper (s)
Whittemore, Robin, and Kathleen Knafl. “The integrative review: updated methodology.” Journal of advanced nursing 52.5 (2005): 546-553.
Interpretivism
Definition
Interpretivism is a paradigm within which researchers focus on how people make sense of reality. Much qualitative research has roots in interpretivism. Interpretivists view reality as subjective, and knowledge as socially constructed.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm concerned with how people make sense of reality
- Most appropriate for qualitative research
- Reality is subjective, and knowledge socially constructed
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Interval data
Definition
Data that are measured along a scale, where each interval is equally spaced from one another. Temperate when measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit is an example.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Item Response Theory (IRT)
Definition
Item Response Theory (IRT) or modelling is a psychometric approach which seeks to understand the properties of assessments and their questions (items) via probabilistic modelling. That is, the relationship between an item’s properties and the probability of a candidate answering in a certain way is modelled using probability distributions. This is in contrast to classicial test theory (see below). Rasch analysis is usually considered as a special case of IRT (see also below)
Summary (bullet points)
IRT models test and item properties in a probabilistic manner
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Iterative
Definition
Adopting an iterative approach to research means that researchers do not wait until all their data is collected before they begin this analysis – analysis occurs concurrently with data collection in cycles, and informs ongoing collection e.g., the questions participants are asked in later interviews, to develop theory. Most common in grounded theory approaches.
Summary (bullet points)
- Data collection and analysis happen at the same time
- Analysis informs ongoing data collection in cycles
- Most common in grounded theory approaches
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Kekeya J. Analysing qualitative data using an iterative process. Contemporary PNG Studies. 2016 May;24:86-94.
Justification
Limitations
Definition
Flaws or shortcoming characteristics of a study design or methodology that impacts the interpretation of the results or findings
Classification (s)
Research term
Literature review
Definition
An overview of existing knowledge on a given topic. It involves searching for, critically analysing, synthesising and summarising information from previous research on that topic.
Classification (s)
Method
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Machine learning
Definition
Usually considered a subfield of AI, though forms the basis of many AI systems. Machines learn from data, either by being shown labelled examples to train on (supervised learning) or unlabelled data for pattern recognition. Other types of machine learning also exist, such as ‘partial reinforcement’ learning, where machines incrementally learn to achieve a goal.
Summary (bullet points)
Machine learning occurs when computers learn from data to make predictions in new, previously unseen data.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Bishop, Christopher M. “Machine learning and pattern recognition.” Information science and statistics. Springer, Heidelberg (2006).
Max, Min
Definition
The largest and smallest value in a data set.
Mean
Definition
The arithmetic mean is the average of the values in a data set.
Member checking
Definition
A technique for exploring the validity of qualitative data and involves sharing either a brief summary of the data/findings or sharing the whole findings with the research participants.
Summary (bullet points)
- Also known as participant or respondent validation
- One of many validation techniques specified for qualitative research
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Birt L, Scott S, Cavers D, Campbell C, Walter F. Member checking: a tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation?. Qualitative health research. 2016 Nov;26(13):1802-11https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1049732316654870?casa_token=UZPlUKW-8x8AAAAA%3AQkCBe6xxB8YgJWUqPEhw95lEhX89m2WTx2706nTcUF2cljZSr7_LspSH4NAd5orRgr4o-iAOOvo.
Member validation
Definition
During an interview process, the researcher will attempt to summarise the discussion and their observations, which are then checked with the interviewee for perceived accuracy. This is done in an attempt to improve internal validity or fittingness of data.
Short definition
Synonyms – member check, respondent validation, informant feedback
Summary (bullet points)
An example might be sending completed transcripts to participants for review afterwards, or showing analysis to participants.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C. and Walter, F., 2016. Member Checking. Qualitative Health Research, 26(13), pp.1802-1811.
Meta-analysis
Definition
A quantitative approach to combine similar outcomes from multiple studies
Summary (bullet points)
- Purpose is to combine similar quantitative outcome data from multiple studies
- Provides an average effect size with a confidence interval, significance value, and estimate of heterogeneity
Classification (s)
Method
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses
Meta-ethnography
Definition
A rigorous seven-phase methodology for synthesising qualitative evidence. Meta-ethnography aims to go beyond the findings of the individual studies synthesised and simply aggregating results to produce a new interpretation, model or theory.
Summary (bullet points)
- Qualitative synthesis methodology
- Produces a new interpretation, model or theory”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Britten, N., Campbell, R., Pope, C., Donovan, J., Morgan, M., & Pill, R. (2002). Using meta ethnography to synthesise qualitative research: a worked example. Journal of health services research & policy, 7(4), 209-215.
Campbell, R., Britten, N., Pound, P., Donovan, J., Morgan, M., Pill, R., & Pope, C. (2006). Using meta-ethnography to synthesise qualitative research. Moving beyond effectiveness in evidence synthesis, 75, 82.
France, Emma F., Maggie Cunningham, Nicola Ring, Simon Arnold Lewin, and Jane Noyes. “Improving reporting of Meta-Ethnography: The eMERGe Reporting Guidance, Review of Education.” (2019).
Meta-ethnography review
Definition
A rigorous seven-phase methodology for synthesising qualitative evidence. Meta-ethnography aims to go beyond the findings of the individual studies synthesised and simply aggregating results to produce a new interpretation, model or theory.
Summary (bullet points)
- Qualitative synthesis methodology
- Produces a new interpretation, model or theory
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Britten, N., Campbell, R., Pope, C., Donovan, J., Morgan, M., & Pill, R. (2002). Using meta ethnography to synthesise qualitative research: a worked example. Journal of health services research & policy, 7(4), 209-215.
Campbell, R., Britten, N., Pound, P., Donovan, J., Morgan, M., Pill, R., & Pope, C. (2006). Using meta-ethnography to synthesise qualitative research. Moving beyond effectiveness in evidence synthesis, 75, 82.
France, Emma F., Maggie Cunningham, Nicola Ring, Simon Arnold Lewin, and Jane Noyes. “”Improving reporting of Meta-Ethnography: The eMERGe Reporting Guidance, Review of Education.”” (2019).
Meta-thematic synthesis
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Metatheory
Definition
The abstract considerations which provide the philosophical underpinnings of a research study.
Method slurring
Definition
Where researchers confuse and muddle methods within a single piece of research which have different philosophical foundations without acknowledging that this is what they are doing (e.g. are based on different epistemologies). This can make results difficult to interpret, and makes answering research questions coherently difficult.
Foundational paper (s)
Baker C, Wuest J, Stern PN. Method slurring: the grounded theory/phenomenology example. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 1992. 17(11):1355-1360.
Methodological borrowing
Definition
The borrowing of elements of one methodology to inform research conducted using another methodology. For methodological borrowing to be successful the borrowing should be done explicitly and intentionally. Ideally scholars are skilled with both methodologies i.e. the primary methodology being used, and the methodology being borrowed from.
Summary (bullet points)
For methodological borrowing to be successful the borrowing should be done explicitly and intentionally.
Ideally scholars are skilled with both methodologies i.e. the primary methodology being used, and the methodology being borrowed
from.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio, Lara, Maria Athina Martimianakis, and Maria Mylopoulos. “Qualitative research methodologies: embracing methodological borrowing, shifting and importing.” Researching medical education (2015): 245-256.
Methodology
Definition
The metatheoretical framework underlying research methods. Distinct named methdological frameworks exist, or the term can be used to describe a more general approach.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Mackenzie N, Knipe S. Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology. Issues in educational research. 2006 Oct;16(2):193-205.
Methods
Definition
The details of how a research project is undertaken. Methods describe what is done. Contrast with Methodology, which describes the metatheoretical framework underlying data collection.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Analysis
Foundational paper (s)
Mackenzie N, Knipe S. Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology. Issues in educational research. 2006 Oct;16(2):193-205.
Mixed-methods
Definition
Data which are usually represented textually, and methods for analysing that data.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Schifferdecker KE, Reed VA. Using mixed methods research in medical education: basic guidelines for researchers. Medical education. 2009 Jul;43(7):637-44.
Mode
Definition
The mode is the data value that shows most frequently in a data set.
Narrative analysis
Definition
An approach taken to analysing interview data that focuses on understanding how and why people talk about their lives as a story or a series of stories. The analysis inevitably includes issues of identity and the interaction between the narrator and audience(s).
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Earthy, Sarah, and Ann Cronin. “Narrative analysis.” Researching social life. University of Surrey, 2008.
Narrative review
Definition
A broad and flexible description of previous research
Summary (bullet points)
- Purpose is flexible, good for focusing and summarising broader topics, rather than answering a specific research question.
- Readers may find the search strategy is non-systematic and inclusion and exclusion criteria are absent.
- Authors often use expertise to focus on key issues using a subjective qualitative approach rather than using systematic or meta-analyses
- May be liable to bias and reflexivity is important.
Classification (s)
Research term
Natural experiment
Definition
A natural experiment is an empirical study in which individuals (or clusters of individuals) are exposed to the experimental and control conditions that are determined by nature or by other factors outside the control of the investigators.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Naturalistic inquiry
Definition
A research study that seeks to observe participants and phenomena in their natural setting, rather than a controlled research setting.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1983). Epistemological and Methodological Bases of Naturalistic Inquiry. Evaluation Models, 311-333. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6669-7_18
Nominal data
Definition
Data that comes from naming or labelling things with no sense of scale or interval between them. Examples include nationality, name and favourite colour.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Non-Parametric Data
Definition
Data that do not conform to any kind of order or probability distribution.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Kendall, M., Arnold, S., Ord, J., & Stuart, A. (1999). Kendall’s Advanced theory of statistics. Arnold.
Normal Distribution
Definition
A probability distribution of data values, where most values sit closer to the mean and a standard deviation of values around this mean. Often illustrated with a bell curve.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Objectivity
Definition
The idea that a researcher can comprehend something about the real world as it truly exists, that there is a reality independent of the researcher that can be grasped.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
https://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/829/1800
Observation
Definition
Involves the noting and recording of events, behaviours and artefacts in a social setting in a systematic way.
Summary (bullet points)
Data can be generated through observing conversations and overt behaviour. Observation concentrates on peoples behaviours in an effort to learn about the meanings behind and attached to actions. The underlying assumption of observation is that people’s behaviour is purposeful and expressive of deeper values and beliefs.
Foundational paper (s)
Kitchin, Rob, and Nick Tate. Conducting research in human geography: theory, methodology and practice. Routledge, 2013.
Ontology
Definition
The nature of reality – the extent and way in which an entity or object of study ‘exists’
Summary (bullet points)
- Asks philosophical questions about the nature of reality
- Part of selecting an approrpiate paradigm for your research that will guide methodological and methods selection
- Important to reflect on your position prior to beginning research
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Ajjawi R, Monrouxe LV, O’Brien BC, Rees CE. Shedding the cobra effect: problematising thematic emergence, triangulation, saturation and member checking. Medical education. 2017 Jan;51(1):40-50.
Ordinal data
Definition
Data that can be ordered but there is no sense of scale or distance between them.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Outcome evaluation
Definition
An outcome evaluation measures a program or interventions results to determine if intended outcomes were achieved. It can tell us how effective a programme or intervention is by asking ‘Did it work?’ and ‘How well did it work?
Summary (bullet points)
Concerned with effectiveness of a programme/intervention, Assesses whether outcomes have been achieved
Foundational paper (s)
Shaw, Ian, et al., eds. The Sage handbook of evaluation. Sage, 2006.
Paradigm
Definition
A metatheoretical ‘wrapper’ which brings together axiology, epistemology, ontology and methodology. Sometimes used synonmously with methodology, sometimes with theoretical framework, though these terms all differ and ‘paradigm’ is a distinct entity. It describes the overall worldview of a piece of research. Coherence between axiology, epistemology, ontology and methodology within a study is essential to research rigour.
Short definition
The nature of reality – the extent and way in which an entity or object of study ‘exists’.
Summary (bullet points)
- A set of common beliefs about research – a shared worldview
- Guides decisions regarding methodology and methods
- Clear consideration of one’s paradigm helps ensure research rigour and assists researchers in answering their research questions in a coherent way
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Bunniss S, Kelly DR. Research paradigms in medical education research. Medical education. 2010 Apr;44(4):358-66.
Parametric Data
Definition
Data that comes from a study population that can be modelled with a distribution of probabilities.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Geisser, S., & Johnson, W. (2006). Modes of parametric statistical inference. Wiley.
Pedagogy
Definition
The method and practice of teaching. Concerns the theory of education and how education influences the growth of learners. Where education is the ‘what’, pedagogy is the ‘how’.
Summary (bullet points)
- Often confused with education, but a distinct term
- Concerns the theory and practice of teaching
- Education is the ‘what’, pedagogy is the ‘how’
Classification (s)
Education term
Foundational paper (s)
McLeod PJ, Steinert Y, Meagher T, McLeod A. The ABCs of pedagogy for clinical teachers. Medical education. 2003 Jul;37(7):638-44.
Phenomenography
Definition
Phenomenology
Definition
An in-depth way of studying human experiences. It is both a philosophy and method to explore individuals’ lived experience – we discuss it here as an approach to qualitative analysis. Involves in-depth data collection and analysis with small, homgenous samples of participants. May be descriptive (focussed on describing a phenomenon) or interpretative (focussed on examining the meaning of human experience/the meaning inherent to how humans experience a pheomenon).
Summary (bullet points)
- Both a philosophy and a method, discussed here as a method to qualitative research
- Examines lived experience of individuals to either describe a pheoneomena of interest in-depth, or explore the meaning of the way in which people experience a phenomena
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Neubauer BE, Witkop CT, Varpio L. How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspectives on medical education. 2019 Apr;8(2):90.
Pilot study
Definition
A pilot study is the first step of the entire research protocol and is often a smaller-sized study assisting in planning and modification of the main study
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Placebo
Definition
A treatment that has no active ingredient or intervention that is known to have no effect. Used as a tool to help blind research studies.
Summary (bullet points)
A sham treatment. Examples include:
- dummy tablets/pills
- mock surgery
- salt water injections
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Arnstein, P., Broglio, K., Wuhrman, E., & Kean, M. (2011). Use of Placebos in Pain Management. Pain Management Nursing, 12(4), 225-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmn.2010.10.033
Placebo Effect
Definition
A change in how a research participant behaves or feels after receiving a placebo. Patients may report that they feel better, for example, despite having taken a dummy tablet.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Chaplin, S. (2006). The placebo response: an important part of treatment. Prescriber, 17(5), 16-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/psb.344
Positivism
Definition
A paradigm, or worldview, based on the natural sciences. Positivists believe in the existence of an objective reality, and that ‘truth’ can be discovered through rigourous methods of experimentation and observation. In positivist research, researchers concern themselves with maintaining objectivity and neutrality. Most positivist research is quantitative in nature.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm originating in the natural sciences
- There is one objective reality
- Humans can know that objective reality through careful experimentation and observation
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Park YS, Konge L, Artino AR. The positivism paradigm of research. Academic Medicine. 2020 May 1;95(5):690-4.
Post-positivism
Definition
A paradigm which builds on the foundations of positivism to suggest that, though there is one objective reality, we can only ever imperfectly know that reality because of the presence of human error in our observations and experiments. Much quantitative research is post-positivst in orientation.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm building on positivist views
- Whilst post-positivists also believe in the existence of an objective reality, they maintain it can only ever be imperfectly known due to human error
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Ryan AB. Post-positivist approaches to research. Researching and Writing your Thesis: a guide for postgraduate students. 2006:12-26.
Pragmatism
Definition
Pragmatism is a paradigm which focuses on research outcomes. It does not place value on considering the ontology or epistemology of one’s approach, instead focussing on what works in practice to answer research questions of interest.
Summary (bullet points)
- Paradigm which focuses on research outcomes
- Unlike other paradigms, ontology and epistemology are not explicitly considered
- Most concerned with what works in practice to answer research questions of interest
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Morgan DL. Pragmatism as a paradigm for social research. Qualitative inquiry. 2014 Oct;20(8):1045-53.
Prescriptive
Definition
Prescriptive research is applied research. Similar to evaluative resarch it identifies succes or performance or outcomes but goes one step further by identifying new solutions or ideas.
Probability distribution
Definition
a probability distribution is the mathematical function that gives the probabilities of occurrence of different possible outcomes for an experiment
Process evaluation
Definition
A process evaluation is a means of assessing a complex intervention which is itself an attempt to solve a problem, in a structured and consistent way.
Summary (bullet points)
- Relies on 3 fundamental pillars
- Implementation – what was done and how?
- Mechanisms – how did it lead to change?
- Context – how does the context of the intervention affect the outcomes?”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Moore, G., Audrey, S., Barker, M., Bond, L., Bonell, C., Hardeman, W., Moore, L., O’Cathain, A., Tinati, T., Wight, D. and Baird, J., 2015. Process evaluation of complex interventions: Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 350(mar19 6), pp.h1258-h1258.
Qualitative
Definition
Data which are usually represented textually, and methods for analysing that data.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Moore, G., Audrey, S., Barker, M., Bond, L., Bonell, C., Hardeman, W., Moore, L., O’Cathain, A., Tinati, T., Wight, D. and Baird, J., 2015. Process evaluation of complex interventions: Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 350(mar19 6), pp.h1258-h1258.
Quantitative
Definition
Data which are represented numerically.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Norman G, Eva KW. Quantitative research methods in medical education. Understanding medical education. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. 2010 Jul 30:301-22.
Questionnaire
Definition
A research instrument used for collecting information from individuals. It contains a series of questions relating to the research aims, as well as questions about the individuals completing the questionnaires.
Summary (bullet points)
- Used for collecting information from individuals to address the research aims
- Can be in paper form, electronic form, or via a combuter-based programme, such as Survey Monkey
- Individuals (or groups) can complete the questionnaires by themselves, or with the help of someone else (usually the researcher)
- The questions may be have responses which are numerical (numbers) or textual (words) or both
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Random Sample
Rapid review
Definition
A simplified systematic approach to synthesise knowledge in a short period of time
Summary (bullet points)
Steps of a systematic review are often streamlined or omitted.
This may include:
- Limiting inclusion criteria such as not reviewing grey-literature and limiting years search
- A single reviewer for selection and data extraction
- A descriptive summary of findings rather than meta-analyses
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
Cochrane Rapid Reviews: Interim Guidance from the Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group
Rasch analysis/calibration
Definition
Rasch analysis is a special case of IRT used to understand the fit of item responses to a ‘Rasch’ pattern and derive scores from assessments in a common (interval) metric, usually expressed as ‘logits’ (log odds units). It does so by assuming that the data have a unidimensional structure and that all items are equally ‘discriminating’ in IRT terms.
Summary (bullet points)
Rasch analysis can be used to derive an interval metric from psychological assessments, though is based on strong assumptions.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic model for some intelligence and achievement tests. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for Educational Research.
Ratio data
Definition
Data that are measured along a scale, where each interval is equally spaced from one another AND there is a meaningful zero point. Examples include age measured in years, temperature measured in Kelvin and time measured in seconds.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Realism
Definition
As an ontology, the belief that a reality exists independent of the perceptions of humans – this involves the presumption of an objective reality. As an approach to research, realism involves exploring why complex interventions work by examining contexts, mechanisms, and outcomes of interventions.
Summary (bullet points)
- Both an ontology and approach to research
- Realist ontologies maintain an objective reality exists independent to the perceptions of humans
- Realist approaches to research explore why complex interventions work
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Ellaway RH, Kehoe A, Illing J. Critical realism and realist inquiry in medical education. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;95(7):984-8.
Realist review
Definition
A theory-orientated and explanatory approach to evidence synthesis.
Summary (bullet points)
- It interrogates the literature to understand how an intervention produces its effects i.e. to explain what works, for whom, in what circumstances, in what respects and why.
- A core element of a realist review is the development of a programme theory of how an intervention is supposed to work.
- A realist review adopts a generative approach to causation: to suggest a causal outcome (O) between two events (x and y), we need to understand the underlying mechanism (M) that links them and the context (C) in which the relationship occurs.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
RAMESES publication standards: realist syntheses RAMESES Training Materials
Reflexivity
Definition
Critical reflection on what has been thought and done in a qualitative research project. Can be done individually or in groups. Involves recognising, sometimes challenging, and sometimes embracing previous experiences, assumptions, and values.
Summary (bullet points)
- Critical reflection on own experiences and position
- Individually and/or in groups
- Adds depth to data analysis and ensures transparency for readers
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Quality criterion
Foundational paper (s)
Ramani S, Könings KD, Mann K, van der Vleuten CP. A Guide to Reflexivity for Qualitative Researchers in Education. Academic medicine: journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges. 2018 Aug 1;93(8):1257-.
Regression
Definition
A statistical method for testing the associations that may exist between a dependent variable and one or more independent (predictor) variables.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Statistics
Foundational paper (s)
Schneider, A., Hommel, G., & Blettner, M. (2010). Linear regression analysis: part 14 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications. Deutsches Arzteblatt international, 107(44), 776–782. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2010.0776
Relativism
Definition
A philosophical term which refers to the position that there is no universal absolute truth – everything is relative to some stance or frame of an individual mind. Reality also depends on the pespective and stance of different people.
Summary (bullet points)
- Philosophical term, most often used to describe an individual’s epistemological beliefs
- There is no universal truth – everything is relative to the stance of an individual
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Hirani SA, Richter S, Salami BO. Realism and relativism in the development of nursing as a discipline. Advances in Nursing Science. 2018 Apr 1;41(2):137-44.
Research approach
Definition
The plan and procedures for research that include broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation
Summary (bullet points)
- Informed by the nature of a research question
- 3 approaches to research: quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Creswell JW. The selection of a research approach. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 2014:3-24.
Research question
Definition
The question your research is seeking to answer.
Summary (bullet points)
- Constructing a research question is one of the first methodological steps when undertaking research.
- A research question should be accurate, clearly defined, answerable and relevant.
- PICO framework can be used to construct research question.
- Population: describes the group you are interested in
- Intervention: says what you are going to do to the group selected
- Control (if relevant): says what we are to compare the intervention with
- Outcome: measures of how effective the intervention has been
- Other frameworks include SPICE,
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
http://www.apfmj-archive.com/afm2.1/afm_050.pdf
Jones, R. (2003). Choosing a research question. Asia Pacific Family Medicine, 2(1), 42-44.http://www.apfmj-archive.com/afm2.1/afm_050.pdf
Davies, K.S., 2011. Formulating the evidence based practice question: a review of the frameworks. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 6(2), pp.75-80.
Stone P. Deciding upon and refining a research question. Palliative medicine. 2002 Apr;16(3):265-7.
Resonance
Definition
The ‘natural history’ of the research question and process. If resonance is achieved, then a reader could take the key elements of the research process and apply it to an unfamiliar, different situation.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Given, L. M. (2008). The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (Vols. 1-0). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412963909
Right to Withdraw
Definition
A participant in a research project has the ability to end their participation in that project or trial at will. They should not have to give reasons why, or have it affect the care they receive.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Ethics
Foundational paper (s)
Good practice in research and Consent to research. (2022). Retrieved 31 March 2022, from https://www.gmc-uk.org/-/media/documents/good-practice-in-research-and-consent-to-research_pdf-58834843.pdf.
Rigour
Definition
Summary (bullet points)
Rigour is a way to establish credibility within research.
Sampling
Definition
Selecting a group of individuals from the population being studied, to take part in a study. This group should be representative of the population being studied, so that the results can be applicable to this population.
Summary (bullet points)
- Selecting part (subset) of a population being studied (target population)
- This subset, called sample, should be representative of the target population
- There are various methods of selecting a sample, and the method used should be carefully considered depending on the purpose of the research, its assumptions, and resources available
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Method
Saturation
Definition
The end point of some approaches to qualitative analysis, where a decision is made that no additional themes are likely to be found. Of late, this term has fallen out of favour and is often replaced by discussions of informational power or theoretical sufficiency.
Summary (bullet points)
- An increasingly outdated term, with roots in grounded theory
- Refers to the point at which researchers decide they have enough data and may cease data collection
- Increasingly understood data can never be fully saturated, instead informational power or theoretical sufficiency are discussed to guide discussions regarding when to stop data collection
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Analysis
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Ajjawi R, Monrouxe LV, O’Brien BC, Rees CE. Shedding the cobra effect: problematising thematic emergence, triangulation, saturation and member checking. Medical education. 2017 Jan;51(1):40-50.
Scoping review
Definition
A systematic approach to identify and map available evidence.
Summary (bullet points)
- Purpose is to identify and map the available evidence using an systematic approach.
- Often used as an exploratory method.
- The review may identify the knowledge available and knowledge gaps, as well as the main concepts and theories available on a topic.”
Classification (s)
Method
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
“PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation
Arksey H, O’Malley L. 2005. Scoping studies: towards a methodological
framework. Int J Soc Res. 8(1):19–32
Gordon M, Daniel M, Patricio M. 2019. What do we mean by
’systematic’ in health education systematic reviews and why it matters!!. Med Teach. 41(8):956–957.
Gordon M, Gibbs T. 2014. STORIES statement: publication standards
for healthcare education evidence synthesis. BMC Med. 12(1):143
Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach
Single Blind Study
Definition
A research study in which the participants do not know to which interventional group they have been assigned. In a clinical trial, they would not know which treatment (if any) they will receive.
Classification (s)
Research term
Foundational paper (s)
Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design (Vols. 1-0). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412961288
Snowball Sampling
Definition
A recruitment method for studies where participants who are already enrolled help to recruit further participants to the study.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Goodman, L. (1961). Snowball Sampling. The Annals Of Mathematical Statistics, 32(1), 148-170. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177705148
Standard Deviation
Definition
the standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values.
State of the art review
Definition
A state of the art review considers and reflects on the most important and current research in a given area, with the goal of describing the ‘state of the art’ at the present time. It may be used to highlight where deficits in knowledge exist, or to guide new research questions.
Subjectivity
Definition
The way in which a researcher’s questions or activities are influenced by the researcher’s thoughts, perceptions, biases and social experiences.
Classification (s)
Research term
Survey
Definition
A type of research that involves collecting information (facts, opinions, feelings) from a group of individuals by asking them a number of questions. This can be done using quantitative methods (eg questionnaires with numerical data) or qualitative methods (eg using open-ended questions) or both
Summary (bullet points)
- Involves collecting information from a sample of individuals
- This sample is a subset of the population that is being studied, the goal is to make the sample representative of the population being studies
- Information is usually collected using questionnaires (containing numerical or textual data or both), or interviews
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Method
Foundational paper (s)
Check J., Schutt R. K. Survey research. In: J. Check, R. K. Schutt., editors. Research methods in education. Thousand Oaks, CA:: Sage Publications; 2012. pp. 159–185
Systematic review
Definition
Answers a specific question through a comprehensive synthesis of available studies, using a prospective protocol to identify and select studies and analyse outcomes.
Summary (bullet points)
- Purpose is to answer a focused research question
- A transparent strategy is used and this consists of a pre-registered protocol that pre-defines all steps of the methodology that will be used
- Studies are identified through a literature search across multiple research databases using the same search terms
- Clearly defined inclusion and exculsion criteria are used to select studies
- Chosen outcomes are extracted using a proform and data is analysed according to the protocol
- Quality of studies is assessed using risk of bias tools”
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Evidence synthesis
Foundational paper (s)
Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71
Systematic reviews in medical education: a practical approach: AMEE guide 94
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, 2021
PROSPERO – International prospective register of systematic reviews
Thematic analysis
Definition
An approach to qualitative analysis which seeks to identify higher level, abstracted meaning. While often inductive, or driven by the data, it can also be deductive, or driven by prior theoretical knowledge. It is used to describe a multitude of approaches, but also the distinct analytical approach known as ‘reflexive thematic analysis’.
Short definition
The nature of reality – the extent and way in which an entity or object of study ‘exists’.
Summary (bullet points)
- A form of analysis within qualitative research.
- It emphasizes identifying, analysing and interpreting patterns of meaning within qualitative data.
- The distinct approach of reflexive thematic analysis was developed by Braun & Clark, though thematic analysis predates their formalisation of the analytic method
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Analysis
Foundational paper (s)
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Theme
Definition
An element of qualitative analysis which represents a higher level, more abstracted level of meaning derived from data. Themes represent patterns of meaning within data, or between codes. Themes can be latent or semantic. Semantic themes represent surface level connections between codes, whereas latent themes reflect deeper underlying connection.
Summary (bullet points)
- Common to many qualitative analyses
- Abstract patterns of meaning that connect and make sense of codes
- Can be semantic or latent
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Metatheory
Foundational paper (s)
Kiger ME, Varpio L. Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131. Medical teacher. 2020 Aug 2;42(8):846-54.
Theoretical framework
Definition
Theoretical frameworks are developed by researchers to structure their study – including their analysis and discussion. Theoretical frameworks connect sets of concepts from one or more theories to what has been done within one’s research.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Paradis E, Uijtdehaage S, Young M. The distinctions between theory, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;95(7):989-94.
Theory
Definition
A grouping of related concepts with explanatory power. Theory is what helps us to make sense of what happens in the world using abstract ideas. Social theorists distinguish between grand theory and middle range theory – grand theory is broad, providing a framework for structuring idead; whereas middle-range theory addresses more narrowly defined phenomena, they are more specific.
Summary (bullet points)
- Theories group related concepts to explain a phenomena or experience
- Some distinguish between grand theory and middle-range theory
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Varpio L, Paradis E, Uijtdehaage S, Young M. The distinctions between theory, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework. Academic Medicine. 2020 Jul 1;95(7):989-94.
Transcript
Definition
A written account of spoken words. It is produced by typing out verbatim (word-for-word) what was said during focus groups or interviews. The transcript is checked against the recorded speech, and then analysed.
Summary (bullet points)
- We produce a transcript by listening to spoken words and typing it out word-for-word
- Can be done by the researcher, or a private transcription company, using transcription softwares or apps
- The transcript should be checked against the recorded speech to correct mistakes and punctuations
- Some forms of analysis also require the nuances of speech to be added, for example, pauses, urmms
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Transcription
Definition
Transcription provides a written account of spoken words. Researchers often transcribe interview or focus group data themselves, or pay a private company to do so. Transcripts are generally written verbatim (exactly word-for- word). Transcribing may appear to be a straightforward technical task.
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Davidson, C. (2009). Transcription: Imperatives for qualitative research. International journal of qualitative methods, 8(2), 35-52.
Transferability
Definition
Transferability is a common marker of research rigour within qualitative research. It concerns applicability to another’s context, and is a judgment made by the reader of research. Researchers can attend to transferability by offering ‘thick descriptions’ of the context and relevance of their research.
Summary (bullet points)
- A qualitative marker of quality or trustworthiness
- Concerns applicability of findings beyond the context of a study, but acknowledges differences in local context make generalisability less appropriate for qualitative research
- Thick descriptions’ of research help promote transferability
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Quality criterion
Foundational paper (s)
Anney VN. Ensuring the quality of the findings of qualitative research: Looking at trustworthiness criteria.
Triangulation
Definition
The process by which the same problem or topic of interest is explored from different perspectives in the same study. Some researchers suggest that this enhances the validity of the study’s findings.
Summary (bullet points)
- The same topic of interest is explored from different perspectives
- Different stakeholders involved
- For some, this enhances perceived validity of findings
Classification (s)
Research term
Classification (s)
Methods
Foundational paper (s)
Heale R, Forbes D. Understanding triangulation in research. Evidence-based nursing. 2013 Oct 1;16(4):98-.
Triangulation
Definition
Combining and using multiple theories, methodologies and observers within a single study in order to overcome biases that may be present.
Summary (bullet points)
A tool to improve the internal validity of data.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Foundational paper (s)
Noble, H. and Heale, R., 2022. Triangulation in research, with examples.
UCAT
Definition
University Clinical Aptitude Test. Entrance exam used most commonly for selection in admissions to UK medical schools and dental schools, and also in some Australasian institutions. Assesses skills in verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning and abstract reasoning, as well as problem solving. Now also includes a situational judgment test (SJT).
Summary (bullet points)
Admissions test for UK medical and dental schools.
- Typically taken by school leavers
- Quantitative reasoning
- Verbal reasoning
- Abstract reasoning
- Situational judgment
UKMLA
Definition
UK Medical Licensing Assessment. A nationwide examination intended to set a threshold for safe practice of medicine in qualifying physicians, accounting for variability in medical school final exams. To be deployed from the 2024-25 academic year.
Univariate Analysis
Definition
The analysis only as one (uni) variable and involves descrbing and finding patterns in the data. It does not investigate causation or relationships
Classification (s)
Research Term
Classification (s)
Methodology
Foundational paper (s)
Validity
Definition
The state of being true, well-grounded, logical and meaningful. Used to describe data that is being collected or has already been collected.
Classification (s)
Research Term
Foundational paper (s)
Cypress, B., 2017. Rigor or Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 36(4), pp.253-263.
Variable
Definition
Is a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way.
Verisimilitude
Definition
A philosophical term often applied to qualitative research, verisimilitude is the property of appearing to be true, used in relation to an observation of hypothesis.
Summary (bullet points)
Verisimilitude is necessarily a question of ontology, not epistemology, as it refers to how close a theory or concept maps to reality, regardless of our belief in the theory.
Foundational paper (s)
https://dx.